How a volcanic eruption shaped Neolithic culture in northern Europe

Massive eruption in 2900 BCE triggered a climate crisis; archaeologists believe Neolithic farmers turned to ritual sacrifices, including engraved sunstones, to restore sunlight and agricultural fertility—marking a pivotal cultural and societal shift in the region 

Throughout history, volcanic eruptions have had devastating impacts on human societies, leading to colder, darker weather and poor crop yields. In 43 BCE, a volcanic eruption in Alaska released large amounts of sulfur into the stratosphere, causing widespread crop failures, famine, and disease across the Mediterranean—events well-documented in ancient Greek and Roman records.
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מיקום האתר ואסאגארד, שעל האי הדני בורנהולם, בים הבלטי
מיקום האתר ואסאגארד, שעל האי הדני בורנהולם, בים הבלטי
Vasagård
(Illustration: Antiquity)
For the Neolithic period, however, no written records exist. To uncover the impacts of such events on early societies, climate scientists from the Niels Bohr Institute at the University of Copenhagen analyzed ice core samples from Greenland. They identified traces of a major volcanic eruption around 2900 BCE, which likely had equally disastrous consequences for Neolithic communities in Northern Europe, whose survival depended heavily on agriculture.
This discovery aligns with evidence from sediment layers in Germany, known as varves, which indicate two periods of reduced sunlight. Tree ring analysis from pine trees in the western United States also shows cold, dry conditions during the same time, further supporting the existence of extreme environmental changes.
Inspired by this 4,900-year-old insight, archaeologists from the University of Copenhagen, the National Museum of Denmark, and the Bornholm Museum reexamined "sunstones" (Solsten in Danish) found at the Vasagård site on the Danish island of Bornholm. Located in the southwestern Baltic Sea, Bornholm has historically been a strategic and contested location, often at the crossroads of conflicts between Denmark, Sweden and Germany.
The sunstones, flat pieces of shale engraved with sun motifs, were discovered alongside remains of ritualistic feasts, including animal bones, broken pottery, and flint tools—all dating back to around 2900 BCE. According to archaeologist Dr. Rune Iversen from the University of Copenhagen, "The sun was central to early agricultural societies in Northern Europe. They depended on sunlight to ensure their crops thrived. Prolonged periods without sunlight would have caused serious anxiety about their agricultural yields."
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Dr. Iversen explains that the sunstones likely symbolized fertility and were used in rituals to ensure the return of the sun and agricultural prosperity. A total of 614 engraved sunstones have been uncovered on Bornholm, alongside other ritualistic artifacts. Iversen and his colleagues believe there is a strong connection between the volcanic eruption, the resulting climate changes, and the ritual practices involving the unique stones.
Findings suggest that after these rituals, the site underwent significant changes. Trenches where the sunstones were buried were replaced by fortified settlements, reflecting major social and cultural shifts. "It’s likely the Neolithic inhabitants of Bornholm performed these rituals to protect themselves from further climate deterioration—or perhaps to give thanks for the sun’s eventual return," Iversen said.
Environmental challenges of the time were compounded by other disasters, including a deadly pandemic identified through genetic analysis of human remains. These combined crises marked the beginning of a cultural transformation in Northern Europe. For instance, the Funnel Beaker Culture, known for its distinctive pottery and burial traditions, began to decline around this period.
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כמה מהממצאים העתיקים שהתגלו באי בורנהולם
כמה מהממצאים העתיקים שהתגלו באי בורנהולם
Some of the findings
(Photo: Antiquity)
Even as societies adapted, the importance of the sun remained central. Dr. Lasse William Sørensen from the National Museum of Denmark noted, "The sun was crucial for Neolithic societies across Europe. This discovery highlights an ancient reverence for the sun, similar to later events like the volcanic eruption in 536 CE that caused a catastrophic climate crisis in Scandinavia."
The research sheds light on how Neolithic communities responded to environmental disasters, illustrating their resilience and adaptability in the face of extreme challenges.
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